Abstract ideas are given meaning with the help of intriguing stories. However, in arts, the ideas present in these stories need to be communicated to a large audience in such a way that they are consistent over space and time such that:

1. Communication doesn’t mean different things for different cultures, since the audience belongs to a large geographical landscape with a plethora of backgrounds.

2. Communication is timeless. The meaning it holds doesn’t change over time, and the symbolism is understood in the same way.

One such way of effectively communicating abstract ideas to concretise them over space and time is using metaphors. Simply put, a metaphor is an object used in the place of another such as to suggest an analogy between them. In arts and design, metaphors are simple and abstract representations used to communicate multiple ideas.

Figure 53: Metaphorisation

Metaphors

A story can have multiple characters and locations, along with various actions and emotions. A realistic depiction of all these attributes would, depending on the complexity of the story, clutter the information presented and confuse the viewer. Also, it wouldn’t be consistent over space and time, as discussed, as such representations might lose their meaning. Giving elements or a bunch of elements from the story a meaning that can be represented by another abstract element would solve the problem of inconsistency, provided the meaning communicated by the abstract element is understood equally by all viewers and fellow artists. This process of representation is called metaphorisation.

Indian arts and architecture are filled with examples of metaphorisation, be it in visual arts, temple architecture, or classical plays. The Upanisads discuss different metaphors like the chariot and the wheel, the sun and its rays, the body and its senses. All these are based on the same basic principles- the concepts of internalization and externalization, and the concepts of time and space, the relationship of parts to a whole, one to many, the concept of formless and multiple forms, and so on. Understanding metaphorisation is also useful if one wishes to understand the meanings of classical arts and architecture, as all shapes and symbols like circles, triangles, lines and dots have multiple layers of meaning.

Figure 54: Metaphorisation in the Yajna

Many ancient Indian arts derive their metaphors from the concept of the ritual of Yajna, which has been referred to in some of the oldest Indian texts. Yajna is a sacred ritual done around a fire. It in itself is a metaphor- being a finite symbol of infinite cosmic space i.e., the universe. The motive of the Yajna is to create a microcosm on the earth suggestive of the macrocosm, that is the whole universe, using motifs and symbols to represent the larger elements like earth and fire (see Figure 54). Various actions done during the ritual also hold their own metaphorical meanings. For example, the act of circling the site for doing 360 degree revolutions refers to the concept of cyclical time. Cyclical time is a concept referred to in many cultures, which refers to the cycles apparent in the real world, like day-night, seasons and so on. Almost all traditional Indian arts take their basic symbols and ideologies from the concept of yajna- which included symbolic representation of Primordial man (Purusa), and other symbols like fire, water and earth. There is importance given to the shapes of square, semi-circle and circle, and the centre (the axis Mundi, or the pillar, that connects heaven to earth), which arise from the abstract Formless concepts of the ritual.

Metaphorisation in Indian Theatre

Indian theatre, the Natya, used metaphors to communicate different elements and scenes of the plays. The actual space of the theater in itself is a metaphor to represent the cosmos, a representation of all three worlds, with a central pillar symbolising a connection between the Earth and the Sky. The stage for the play, an erection of a microcosmos, is an area divided into units, with different marked colours symbolising different directions, with white being the color of the East, blue being the West, Yellow being the South and Red being North (see Figure 55).

Figure 55: Natya stage as a metaphor to represent the Cosmos

To metaphorise the structure of the drama itself, an imagery of five concentric circles, as shown in figure 56 is used. These circles represent the major and minor episodes of a drama. The five stages of development of action- the beginning, the effort, the continuation of effort, the possibility of attainment and the attainment of the fruit- are conceived sequentially as circles of different sizes. The development of the plot of the play is also metaphorically compared to a seed which expands and develops.

Figure 56: Concentric circles representing the structure of a drama

An analysis of a popular Sanskrit play ’AbhijnanaSakuntala’ shows how different elements like simple and complex movements, thoughts and things have been represented using techniques like ’Angikabhinaya’ (depicting something using actions instead of props). The facial expressions, actions and speed of movements would depict the underlying emotions and tempo. Representation of deer, for example, was not done by actual deer, but by a dancer wearing a deer mask, constantly peering and frisking in fright. Along with acting, the physical position on the stage corresponded to the structure of the drama itself. Changes in locale did not take place in the drama through thedivision of the script into scenes and acts but through movement from one demarcated area to another. Abstraction of these scenes was depicted using metaphors like zonal divisions and stylised walking on stage. The lyrical beauty of such scenes could not be possible with realism.

Metaphors in Visual Arts

Visually, ideas and concepts can be metaphorised using different shapes, colours, spatial positions and directions. The purpose of these metaphors isn’t literal comparison, but importing similitude. They are physical vehicles for communicating the ideas- similes for explaining the phenomenon/abstract ideas of the stories. The Bindu (a spiral shape) as shown in figure 57 is an important visual metaphor, which has conceptually guided Indian Arts for centuries. The centre of the Bindu signifies a state of rest, the unmanifest. This in turn creates the many, the manifest, which is in a constant state of flux within the area of the circle. This state of flux is depicted by the spiral arms emanating from the stationary centre. This metaphor of the Bindu has also been used to represent cyclical never-ending time.

Figure 57: The Bindu

Figure 58: Metaphors of Square and Circle

The shapes of the square and circle also became some of the most important and widely used visual metaphors in Indian arts, ranging from visual arts to architecture. They emerge from the analysis and comparison of opposite psychic states, or more simply put, the exploration of complementary pairs. Visually they give rise to the geometrical figures of circle and square, each of which symbolises the coming together of two opposites and an unbroken continuum (see Figure 58). Although these pairs are polar opposites, their relationship isn’t one of tension, but of fading and evolving into one another. The square form symbolises order in a world of opposites, with two sets of parallel lines. The circle suggests the continuum of cyclic time. These metaphors provide an elaborate grammar of form. In Indian theater, the square plan represents the stage, while movement in space, which is related to time, happens in the dynamic rhythm of a circle, as can be seen in figure 59.

Figure 59: Square and Circle in Indian Theater

The imagery of a circle with its diameters, resembling a cartwheel as shown in figure 61, is used in various depictions. It signifies collecting energies from a central point, the Bindu, and the shape of the chakra that is derived from it are used in various formats like depiction of different human poses. The image of the Damru as shown in figure 60, a musical instrument, has been used in various art forms as a metaphor for cyclic continuous time. Being made of two triangles meeting at the apex, suggesting past and the future, the striker can reach either past or future from the moment of the present, the centre.

Figure 60: The Damru suggesting cyclic time

Figure 61: The Cartwheel

An important abstract concept in Indian arts is the depiction of the unison of the earth and sky, since most art forms seek to depict a relationship between the microcosm and the macrocosm. This depiction is shown by different metaphors. In architecture, it is shown by a vertical pillar, the Stambha, in the centre, an example of which can be seen in figure 62. In sculpture, a central vertical median is the chosen depiction.

Figure 62: Ashoka Stambha

A proper understanding of metaphors can help uncover several layers of abstraction from an artefact, as shown in figure 63. The first layer could be literal- what is actually visible to us, be it a chariot wheel, a pillar, or so on. The second layer is the first layer of meaning hidden by the metaphor- what the metaphor is trying to symbolise.

Figure 63: Layers of Abstraction

Some examples can be cyclic time, opposites coming together and earth-sky unison. The third layer can be the deeper interconnected meaning of the whole artefact itself, while being a part of the larger context. For example, a cartwheel motif on the base of a temple could be a metaphor for an element of a story that the whole temple is trying to convey.

Mappings

A widely practised way to metaphorise abstract concepts is to map them to different well-known elements. These elements could be parts of the human body, elements of nature, and so on. Mapping allows creation of a design grammar that can be used by artists throughout space and time, and makes it easier for the viewer to understand and relate to the product.

Mapping to Elements of Nature

Elements of nature like Fire and Water are universally understood, hence it is easy to assign complex abstract concepts to them for better representation. Since all these elements are vital to supporting life, and have well-defined characteristics, the mapping is done in such a way that the said characteristics complement the abstract idea. Different elements of nature- Earth, Water, Fire, Wind and Space- hold special significance in Indian arts and architecture, and have been mapped and represented in different ways.

Different elements of nature can be assigned to represent different abstract ideas based on their physical characteristics, thus being metaphors for those ideas. Earth, or the ground, is referred to as calm, rigidity and stability, with the power to hold something. Water represents adaptation, healing and nourishment, as it leads life to food. Fire signifies energy, power and confidence, and has the ability to transform one form of matter into another. Air, or Wind, signifies movement, breath, clear communication and self-expression. Space acts as the omnipresent binding element where all other elements originate and return to. Space can also refer to the sky, with its inspiring vastness (see Figure 64).

Figure 64: Five Elements of Nature

The Yajna, as discussed above, itself refers to many elements based on their characteristics. The two most important elements of the ritual, water and fire, are significant, with a third element, the Earth, being the base itself for holding the ritual. Water is equated to food since when water comes, there is plentiful food in this world. Fire is seen as the creative force full of energy which determines movement in the universe. It awakens matter and can be transformed into diverse forms of nature since it doesn’t have any particular shape.

Figure 65: Stars in Islam as a metaphor to represent abstract concepts

Arts and architecture across cultures refer to these elements of nature, taking conceptual inspiration as well as displaying them directly. Islam forbids direct representation of animate beings and objects, thus, Islamic architecture is embellished with intricate patterns and shapes that act as visual symbols to represent abstract concepts. The artists focus on the delicate shapes and geometries found in nature, and imitate these shapes to create beautiful patterns. For instance, the motifs and patterns of stars, as shown in figure 65 are found on almost all Islamic arts and architecture. Stars are a metaphor for light of the heaven, which guides the thoughts and actions of the follower, along with providing directions at night. In a similar way, the symbol of Moon also emerged, as a metaphor for providing light, guidance and directions.

Indian literature, which places great emphasis on realising and controlling human senses, has mapped these five elements of nature to the five senses of sound, touch, sight, taste and smell. This mapping has been used in several art and architecture forms. Smell has been associated with earth, taste with water, shapes and form (as conceived by sight) with fire, touch with air, and sound with space.

Mapping to the Human Body

In some cultures, different parts of the human body have been mapped to different elements of the universe, like Earth, Fire, Water and so on, with special significance given to the navel, which is considered the centre of the universe. There is a deep interconnectedness between the elements of nature, parts of the human body used as metaphors and their characteristics used to represent abstract concepts, and it is most apparent in temple architecture. All these mappings aren’t just standalone metaphors, they indeed have connections and acquire significance only when placed in a special relationship with some other part.

Figure 66: Mapping of human body a Square Temple Plan

The architecture of Hindu temples follows the imagery of a Man called the Vastupurusa. If one analyses the plan of the temple, as in, the top-down view, The door of the temple is the mouth of the Man, signifying the entrance. The platform terminating the trunk of the superstructure becomes the shoulders. The projections on both sides become the arms. The lowermost mouldings at the periphery of the temple become the feet. In a general square plan of the temple, the centre, or the Garbhagriha, which is the most important part of the temple, corresponds to the centre of the human body- the navel. The Garbhagriha is surrounded by thick walls on which rests the high superstructure. These walls correspond to the thighs of the Man body, as a metaphor for providing support (see Figure 67). When viewed in a simplified fashion for a basic square plan, one realises that the image here is the Man body almost sitting on earth, contained in a square, as shown in figure 66.

Figure 67: Mapping in a Square Temple Plan

This mapping is not just prevalent in the plan, but also in the elevation, which is the view of the temple from the side. In a side view, the head becomes the sky, the navel the Garbhagriha and the lowermost mouldings the feet. From the central square where the Garbhagriha is risen the central axis upwards, reaching the highest point of the temple. This corresponds to the head of the Man body, with the rest of the temple corresponding to the body. The Garbhagriha is always the central navel, regardless of the direction- horizontal or vertical, in which the temple is seen. There are two simultaneous images one of a sitting man beginning with the navel which is the Garbhagriha (see Figure 68), which corresponds to the elevation, and the other of the horizontal man where the outermost portions become the feet and lead to the navel in the centre (see Figure 69), which corresponds to the plan.

Figure 68: Temple mapping with a sitting Man

Figure 69: Mapping of human body in Temple architecture

The mapping is not to be taken literally but is important, as it gives a frame of reference and measure of construction. For instance, the smaller units of measurement are equal to the breadth of one finger. The symbolism is relating the aspects of the structural organism, which is the body of a human, to the macrocosm, or the whole universe.

Visual Design Grammar arising from the Mappings Mapping and metaphorising elements of design helps understand relationships between them. These relationships can be quantified and converted into design principles, and can be used directly. Some of these relationships can be hierarchies of elements, ratios of sizes, element shapes, etc. Hierarchy refers to the importance given to design elements. An element higher up in the hierarchy needs to be highlighted more, either visually or by other methods, depending on the medium. These interrelationships between elements need to be properly understood before visually displaying them.