Once the design grammar constituting the metaphors and mappings arising from the initial abstract idea is in place, the artist/designer needs to start giving the idea a visual form. The metaphors assigned to each element dictate the importance/hierarchies between them, along with other relationships. There can be several ways to visually show these relationships.
Visually Representing Element Relationships
Relationships between elements can be their hierarchies, proportions, spatial positions, and so on.
In temple architecture, elements are given a hier archical importance based on their mappings. Garbhagriha, mapped to the navel, is the most important part of the temple, thus its spatial position is in the centre. Other aspects, like positions and sizes, also depend on element hierarchies arising from the mappings. Considering the bounding shape, the square as a fundamental shape has given rise to a square plan for multiple temples over centuries. When one considers other arts like sculpture, an analysis of the compositional structure of most 2D sculptures, mostly on temple walls, show that effort is made to highlight the navel of the human figures, mostly by placing it in the centre of the composition, or in one of the focal points.
Element hierarchies can also be visually depicted using ways other than spatial placement. When one looks at ancient manuscripts (Figure 70), it is noticeable how different techniques have been used to represent different families of text. White spaces have been used as attention-directing devices to highlight certain chunks of text that seemingly hold more importance. There is use of varying letterforms and font weights, ranging from thin to bold to emphasise certain text. Of importance from a graphic design perspective are the many treatments for borders and border decorations to establish areas of importance. Thus, hierarchy isn’t just represented by attributes of the element itself, but also by attributes of the space surrounding it.
The golden ratio is an important principle to consider when analysing visual arts and architecture, and its presence has been prevalent throughout the designs of temples and mosques. The golden ratio is best approximated by dividing any two consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence (a sequence where a number is equal to the sum of the previous two numbers) and is considered to be one of the most beautiful numbers in the universe, with a value lying close to 1.618. It is almost equal to the ratio of the length between the top of the head to the navel, and the navel to the feet. The golden ratio is used throughout Hindu and Islamic arts, ranging from governing proportions of plans of religious buildings to beautiful geometric patterns and sculptures. Figure 71 shows the front view of the Taj Mahal, and how the ratio of its width to its height follows the golden ratio.
Figure 70: Ancient Manuscripts
Apart from 1.618, another important ratio in ancient India has been 5:4. This ratio dictates the length to be a quarter longer than the breadth. First witnessed in the town planning in the Harappan cities in the third millennium BC, and finding concrete expression in the excavations in the Gujarat city of Dholavira (see Figure 72), the golden proportion re-emerges almost a thousand years later in the ancient texts, where the ratio of 5:4 is used to create fire-altars for Vedic ceremonies.
Figure 71: Golden Ratio in Taj Mahal
Grids and Compositions
Once the hierarchy and basic positioning of the design elements are in place, they need to be composed and organised. The grid system is a design method that helps visually compose these elements based on their attributes like hierarchical order and helps lay them out.
Figure 72: Golden Ratio in the Plan of Dholavira, Harappa
Figure 73: Elements of a Grid
Types and Elements of a Grid System
A grid consists of three elements- the Point, the Axial line, and the Mode of intersection (Figure 73). The shape and density of axial lines and the number of intersection points determine the complexity of the grid.
Figure 74: A simple rectangular grid with design elements
Classification of grids could be done based on their structural systems, as coordinate based, intersection-based, intersection-based, module-based, or line based, as shown in figure 75. Usually, these grid systems are found in pairs to form Point based and Field-based systems, as shown in figure 76. Point-based systems use a combination of Coordinate and intersection-based sub-forms, while Field based systems use Module and Line based sub-forms.
In its most basic form, a grid system can be thought of as an array of squares that act as placeholders for laying out various design elements. Although a simple grid as shown in figure 74 may dictate similar sizes for all elements, the hierarchy could still be dependent on the element position. Centrally placed elements would be considered more important.
Figure 77, based on the ancient Talamana system, shows a simple but well designed grid that is used as a hierarchical measurement system, and it ensures correct presentation of important components. It helps communicate large amounts of information according to its hierarchy and order.
Figure 75: Types of Grid Systems
Figure 76: Pairs of Grid Systems
Figure 77: The Talamana System
Complex Grids
Unlike the static grids used in Western designs, Indian grids are more fluid and responsible for everything from the layout of temples to manuscripts to sari designs. Indian culture is rich in examples of creative and flexible uses of the grid, be it in the Yajna rituals, or the Navgraha grid depicting the nine planets (Figure 78). Grids in Indian arts are not just a tool for the enhancement of design, they themselves hold depth and meaning derived from abstract ideas and stories. Traditional India shows that grids need not be strict and rectangular like the present, especially when one looks at examples of grids in the past, like Chakravyuha (Figure 79), which were modular and fluid, and served their purpose.
Figure 78: Navgraha grid and its meaning
Applications of Grids
Different types of grids were used in design and construction of all kinds of designs, ranging from arts to architecture. For better understanding, we can have a brief look at the grids used in the following:
1. Yantra
2. Floor Graphics
3. Textile
4. Architecture
5. Sculpture
Figure 79: Chakravyuha grid and its use in Mahabharata
Yantra Grids
Yantras are geometrical diagrams consisting of shapes such as the triangle, circle and square in numerous combinations and permutations that have symbolic significance in meditation and ritual worship. Although mostly associated with metaphysical and astrological connections, Yantras use elaborate grid systems to create different kinds of complex geometries. Yantras can be of different types, some of the most important being Ganesha, Durga, Sun and Moon Durga, as can be seen in Figure 82. The basic elements of the Yantra are the Bindu (The central dot with maximum importance) and the shape like circle, triangle, square and the lines.
Grids in Floor Graphics
Floor graphics are patterns found in various architectural structures like temples, mosques and churches.
Figure 80: Types of Yantras
Floor graphics like rangolis are made by the process of drawing on or around a system of dots using straight or curved lines, as can be seen in Figure 81. Rangolis themselves also have many symbols that act as metaphors for representing different meanings. Figure ?? shows a rangoli design with feet and flowers. The feet act as a metaphor for the path for the deity to enter the house. The flowers represent the fertility of the land.
Figure 81: Rangoli Grids
Grids in Textile
Prints on clothing showcase highly elaborate patterns that emerge from following a set of fixed rules. Figure 83 shows one such example of a print known as Ajrak print, which uses shapes like hexagons, rectangles and circles to create motifs. The remaining spaces are filled with flowers and leaves, as a way of representing natural elements.
Figure 82: Rangoli
Grids in Architecture
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, were built with blocks divided by a rectangular grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west, as shown in figure 84. Each block was subdivided by small lanes.
When one looks at the plan for a traditional Indian theater, the different types of grids can be seen, as shown in figure 85. The shape of the theater can be rectangular, square or triangular, and these could be further subdivided into large, medium or small spaces, giving rise to multiple configurations. The size and basic shapes of these grid modules were dependent on the abstract idea the design was trying to convey, using its different elements.
Figure 83: Ajrak print on Textile
Figure 84: Rectangular Grids of Mohenjodaro
Figure 85: Different grids in theater plans
An examination of temple plans shows that the principle of multiplying a spatial unit horizontally and vertically was uniformly followed, with the unit being mostly square-shaped (see figure 86). When seen against the Talamana grid, it is apparent how the element hierarchy works in the grid according to positions. Central position is the most important, which is given to the Garbhagriha. When one looks at more complex temple architecture, the ground plan can be broken up into geometrical motifs of the square and the circle, as shown in figure 87. The resulting geometry provides an elaborate grid system which conforms to the metaphors and mappings discussed above.
Temples usually follow a square grid which is subdivided into different numbers of squares. For example, figure 88 shows the grid of Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho. figure 88 (a) shows the picture of the actual temple, figure 88 (b) shows its floor plan, and figure 88 (c) shows its grid. Counting the number of squares shows that the temple was built following a 16 square grid. Similarly, different temples have grids with different numbers of squares based on their size.
Figure 86: Talamana Grid as shown against a simple square temple plan
Figure 87: Primary and secondary grids in a temple plan
Islamic architecture, as seen in the previous chapter, extensively uses the star shape. The stars can be of different types, resulting from the various types of grids they arise from. The stars arise from dividing a circle into different numbers of segments. As can be seen in figure 89, there can be 4-point, 6-point, 8-point or 10-point stars based on the number of divisions of the circular grid. These stars are then tessellated to create large patterns by copying them over and over next to each other, which can be seen on places like roof patterns, floor patterns and jalis (figure 90). These grids clearly show the significance of the circular shape in Islamic geometry, a symbol of unity and diversity in nature.
In Buddhist architecture, inspiration is drawn from the five elements of nature, called the Chakras (see figure 91- a). They are Space, Air, Fire, Water and Earth, with each holding its own meaning. These elements are represented by different geometrical shapes, which also become the guiding grids for the design of Buddhist Stupas, as can be seen in figure 91 (b) and (c). These shapes can have varying sizes across different stupa designs, but the basic structure and order remain constant.
Figure 88: Grids of Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho
Figure 89: Different point stars in Islamic architecture
Figure 90: Tessellation of stars to create Jali patterns
Figure 91: 5 Chakras of a Buddhist Stupa
Grids in Sculptures and 2D Compositions
Ancient books, manuscripts, sculptures, motifs on building walls- all follow the grid system to display different elements of design. Figure 92 shows an example of a Jain manuscript, and how the layout is composed. The paper is divided into five horizontal units. The text is arranged in two columns, which appear rectangular in shape due to the width of the paper. The paper proportion is roughly 4:1 as corresponding to the width and height respectively. The text block also responds to this ratio. The borders define the columns within the page layout, highlighted by red lines with black borders. The third and the fourth manuscripts show examples where a full height image takes up a column, occupying the top and bottom margins.
The Mahalakshmi Figure from Elura Cave XIV is an excellent example of how motifs on temple walls followed the grid system to bring forward theories of visual composition like balance and focus while remaining true to the metaphors, storytelling and the abstract idea. The image shows the goddess sitting on a lotus throne, flanked by four devas. The symbolism is the connection of the bottom water world, the central earth element and the top celestial world, or the sky. A geometrical analysis of the composition reveals that it is set in a circle, with the devi’s navel as the centre. The principle and the horizontal verticals(the diameters) can be deciphered as passing through elements of interest, or the focal points (see Figure 93). The composition gives us a grid that resembles a 16 spoked wheel with the navel as the hub, or the centre of the circle. Another layer of oblique chords gives us triangles in the circle, which correspond to the movement of the devas. Using the circular grid system to set the composition up makes it look visually balanced, with an equal distribution of elements and action across the canvas. Figure 94 shows the figure of the Devi as a system of abstracted curves, which makes it easier to understand the different poses against different types of background grids.
Figure 92: Layout of Jain Manuscripts
Figure 93: Mahalakshmi Figure and its Grids
Figure 94: Mahalakshmi Figure and its Abstraction
Grids in Multiple Dimensions
When considering temple architecture, grids don’t just dictate the floor plan, but also dictate composition of elements in the vertical space, or the elevation (side view). As can be seen in figure 95 which shows the Kardmeshwar Temple as an example, basic rectangular grids can lead to highly geometric and ordered structures.
Human Anatomy and Movements
Since design is in most cases meant to be used by humans, a basic understanding of the human body proportions, movements and constraints is essential to create truly usable designs. This study of human body measurements is called anthropometry. Although the term is new, classical India employed various grids and techniques that made it easier to understand human anatomy. Classical arts refer to the Sama, a basic posture in which the man's body is shown erect with arms extended. Primary and secondary movements, and various other positions like sitting, standing and reclining commence from
this position of stillness. The imagery of a chakra is used (see Figure 96), the centre of which corresponds to the navel, similar to the one that was used in the Mahalakshmi Figure. The vertical median, which acts as a metaphor for connecting the sky and the earth, becomes the spinal cord. This circular grid, with its centre and diameters, acts as the cage of the body guiding the movement patterns within the circumscribed space of the circle. The bounding circle of the Chakra grid is usually placed in a square, and sometimes a rectangle, as can be seen in many Indian sculptures. The circle is sectioned off by 4, 6, 8 or 12 diameters depending on the complexity of the scene. The most important diameter is the vertical one, and the second most important is the horizontal one, both passing through the navel.
Another way of dividing the circle in the Chakra grid, apart from diameters, is by making cords from the ends of those diameters (see Figure 97). Here, the division of the circle into the horizontal and vertical, as per the diameters, refers to the space division. The oblique chords refer to the time division. This is because the framework of vertical and horizontal is static and refers to the structural armature of all positions, whereas the oblique chords correspond to the movements of the body parts through time.
Figure 95: Grids in Elevation of Kardmeshwar Temple
The human body can be further abstracted into a system of shapes and lines, an example of which can be seen in Figure 98. Such abstraction helps in easily creating different poses while keeping all the proportions and movement constraints natural and not having to focus on the details.
Figure 96: Chakra Grid for the Human Body
Figure 97: Chords in the Chakra Grid
Figure 98: Abstraction of Human Figure into Basic Shapes
Although the Chakra grid helps quickly and accurately construct different poses and movements of the human body, it also helps easily assign different emotions to those poses. For example, the vertical diameter (median) helps assign a balance to the pose. When the weight of the body is distributed equally on either side of the median, a sense of calm and poise is evoked. When the weight is unequally distributed, a sense of disturbance or imbalance is evoked. The sense of how the weight is distributed gives rise to different emotions the sculpture expresses. Thus, the sculptor doesn’t need to rely on surface treatment or muscular tension to depict states of mood. The pose itself can get the job done. The positions of various body parts with respect to the centre, principal diameters, oblique diameters and chords within the circle determine the emotion conveyed. For example, Figure 99 shows Nataraja with uplifted legs and crossing arms which lead to intersecting lines. This gives the image a sense of dynamism.
